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Sinunasal Irrigation: Cleansing Care for a Healthy Nose and Sinuses

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The nose that serves as an entrance to our airways is not a straight pathway as some imagine it to be. There are holes leading into our sinuses as well as bends and curves which may serve as areas where germs, dust and dirt from the air that we breathe may lodge into and cause various health problems affecting our nose and sinuses. Clearing away these irritants could be achieved most effectively by thoroughly washing the nasal passages and sinuses through large volume sinunasal irrigation.

Unlike nasal sprays or pumps, sinunasal irrigations deliver a large volume of solution under low pressure to gently wash the nasal passages and the sinus cavities. Sinunasal irrigation washes away and removes excess mucus containing bacteria, viruses and irritants or allergens such as dust, pollen, pet dander, and smoke particles.

Following are the benefits of sinunasal irrigating solution:

     • Clears and cleanses the sinunasal cavity
     • Aids in thinning secretions, lessens pressure and pain in the sinuses relieving symptoms of sinunasal congestion
     • Helps moisturize the sinunasal mucous membranes
     • Promotes the natural protective action of cilia to sweep away mucus, dirt or debris
     • Provides relief of symptoms associated with cold, sinusitis, allergies, pre and postoperative care
     • Optimizes patient’s recovery following nasal and sinus surgery

In irrigating the nose and the sinuses, a number of clinical experts advocate the use of a mineral- rich solution called Ringer’s lactate instead of plain saline as the appropriate irrigating solution. The composition of Ringer’s lactate solution more closely approximates that of the extracellular fluid. Ringer’s lactate, which is composed mainly of sodium chloride, potassium chloride and calcium lactate pentahydrate, closely mimics the body’s own extracellular fluid that naturally bathes the body cells. The minerals of the sinunasal irrigation solution act together for the relief of nasal and sinus conditions. Such irrigating solution is not associated with serious side effects and does not sting as other concentrated solutions are prone to do. There are commercially available sinunasal irrigating preparations that are of the same composition as Ringer’s Lactate.

For more information on sinunasal irrigation and if you have persisting or worsening symptoms, please consult your doctor.

FAST FACTS ON PROPOLIS: The Wonder Product from Bees

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Whether it be for a mouth or throat infection, that bothersome “singaw”, or even the sore throat you may get from talking for long periods of time, Propolis can do wonders for you.

Know more of the numerous benefits this nature’s gift has to offer.


1. PROPOLIS is a bee product used by humans for thousands of years

Propolis is a natural substance produced by bees from various plant sources. Bees make propolis as building material for their hive to seal holes in their honeycomb, hence its nickname “bee glue”. Propolis is a complex blend of plant derived compounds collected by bees, giving it multiple biologic properties. Throughout history, humans have been using propolis for its numerous health benefits.

2. PROPOLIS and Honey are two different compounds

Bees give us a number of produces that are beneficial to human. This includes honey, royal jelly, beeswax and propolis. Although both are naturally made by bees, propolis and honey are two different and distinct products. Honey is primarily made by bees as a food source, while propolis is made to seal the cracks on their hive, protecting and maintaining the beehive from invasive microorganisms that threaten to infect the colony.

3. PROPOLIS differs from one region to another

Just like honey has many types with varying characteristics, not all propolis are created the same. The biologic activity of propolis is dependent on various factors, including the place and climactic condition of its origin, and the type of plants, trees, and flowers where the bees take the “raw materials” to make propolis. Propolis from Croatia has been shown to have potent antioxidative and antimicrobial activity because of its high content of bioactive substances known as flavonoids.

4. PROPOLIS is not just another “Herbal Product”

Propolis is a bee product. And this makes it extra special— Bees are known for being one of the most hardworking, dedicated and expert workers in nature. Bees extract the substances they used to make propolis from various and many flowers, trees and plants to produce a rich mixture of bioactive substances. So with propolis, you get the multiple biologic properties of a number of flora expertly picked by the bees.

5. PROPOLIS offers multiple Health Benefits

One of the known properties of propolis is its ANTIMICROBIAL action, its ability to help fight various types of BACTERIA, FUNGI, and even VIRUSES. Propolis helps fight bacteria through various mechanisms, including its ability to disrupt the bacterial cell wall, inhibit bacterial cell division and impair bacterial movement. Some researchers also showed how propolis fights various viruses. Propolis can help block the entry of viruses into the cell and inhibit viral replication.

Another benefit that propolis is well known for is its ANTI-INFLAMMATORY property. Propolis has been demonstrated to act on various phases of inflammation by inhibiting chemicals in the body that mediate the inflammatory process. Owing to its anti-inflammatory activity, propolis SOOTHES PAIN and relieves irritation, such as that of an inflamed throat or mouth.

Propolis is also known to aid in WOUND-HEALING due to its ability to promote synthesis of collagen, the tissue cement substance. Propolis is said to induce a favorable environment that is conducive to speeding up the growth of new cells. A study has shown that propolis improved the outcomes of surgery involving the tonsils.

6. You can now conveniently find PROPOLIS preparations in many drugstores nationwide

Various propolis preparations are available in the Philippine market. If you’re looking for a natural remedy to soothe your inflamed throat and reduce oral cavity irritations, oral sprays with Propolis are widely available in drug stores nationwide.

COVID-19 Proofing Your Christmas Celebration

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COVID-19 Proofing Your Christmas Celebration


The COVID-19 pandemic has brought a lot of changes this year, but we don’t have to let it ruin our Christmas traditions. We can still have a merry Christmas celebration even if we have to adapt new ways of celebrating without failing to observe the standard health protocols such as wearing face masks and face shields, frequent hand washing and disinfecting, as well as physical distancing.

As long as we follow safety protocols, we can still enjoy our Noche Buena with our loved ones.

We must heed the advice of health authorities to refrain from attending gatherings that will require travel to areas under stricter quarantine classification. We also must make sure that our loved ones and friends who have respiratory or flu-like symptoms, exposure to COVID-19 positive individuals, and those who are vulnerable such as the elderly and people with other major illnesses don’t get to join social gatherings.

Here are some tips on how to celebrate a COVID-19 proof Christmas with family and friends:

1. Have your parties online using any appropriate app as an alternative and safe way to celebrate.

2. For face-to-face celebrations, arrange for outdoor gatherings in your garden or patio. If outdoor celebration is not possible, ensure proper ventilation of the venue by keeping the windows and doors always open.

3. Limit gatherings to a small group and only among household members. Make sure that the venue will ensure proper physical distance among expected attendees.

4. Maintain physical distancing. Avoid greetings that involve touching or physical contact such as handshakes, “mano”, or “beso-beso”.

5. When serving food, it is safer to use disposable paper tableware. Individual serving or packed meals is a safe option for bigger groups.

6. Avoid karaoke and sing-along-sessions, as droplets are easier to spread with singing.

7. Have rubbing alcohol, hand sanitizers, face masks, disposable paper towels available in various areas of the venue such as entrances, exits, tables, sink, and toilet.

High Volume Nasal Irrigation Aids Topical Steroids to Access the Sinus Mucosa in Chronic Rhinosinusitis

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Chronic Rhinosinusitis (CRS), which is associated with multiple causes, is a common illness that makes millions of people from different parts of the globe suffer. CRS poses a profound impact on the quality of patients’ lives due to its disturbing symptoms on top of the huge cost in treating the underlying cause. 

Since the nasal and sinus mucosa are persistently inflamed, nasal steroid sprays have been used for the relief of CRS especially after surgery. However, in a clinical review published in the International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology, Dr. David Jang and his fellow researchers noted that nasal steroid sprays may not deliver adequate amounts of medication to the postoperative sinus cavity. In this study, they compared the condition of the patients when on high volume steroid nasal irrigation versus off-irrigation periods using conventional nasal steroid sprays only. It was found that patients had worsening of symptoms when they were not on high volume steroid nasal irrigation.

Dr. Auddie Sweis and a team of researchers also did a retrospective chart review of 90 patients with chronic rhinosinusitis to evaluate steroid nasal saline irrigation using budesonide or mometasone prior to surgery. In this study published in May 2020 at the International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology, Dr. Sweis and colleagues found that after a trial of steroid nasal irrigation, 64.4% had significant improvement enough to avoid surgery.

The use of devices that deliver large volume with positive pressure irrigation aids topical steroids to effectively access the sinus mucosa. This also provides an efficient lavage through enhanced mechanical removal of mucus, bacteria and inflammatory agents.

Findings from the study by Dr. Kornkiat Snidvongs and colleagues published in the International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology supported the strategy of utilizing high volume delivery system for irrigation to ensure that intranasal corticosteroids are appropriately delivered to the sinus mucosa. The study was done on 111 patients with CRS who underwent Endoscopic Sinus Surgery (ESS) and found that intranasal corticosteroid is an effective therapy when appropriately delivered using a high-volume delivery system.

In a controlled trial published in May 2020 in the Indian Journal of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Dr. Maheshbabu Thanneru and his colleagues showed that in patients with chronic allergic rhinosinusitis who underwent surgery, the use of budesonide nasal irrigation after surgery led to significant reduction of symptom scores by an average of 70% compared to the 44% reductions seen in patients who just had standard care after surgery.

In July 2020, a controlled trial by Dr. Lisa Cherian and colleagues which was published in Rhinology compared the oral steroid prednisolone, nasally irrigated steroid budesonide, and the oral antibiotic doxycycline for patients with chronic rhinosinusitis. The results of treatment that lasted for 3 weeks revealed that clinical improvement was significant with both oral and irrigated steroid but not with the antibiotic doxycycline.

While some investigators have used saline solution as the vehicle in delivering topical steroids through large volume irrigation, some clinical experts recommend Ringer-Lactate as a more appropriate solution for sinunasal irrigation.

Murat Ünal and colleagues wrote in a study published in The Journal of Laryngology & Otology, “Ringer’s Lactate has a composition that more closely approximates the extracellular fluids and is more deserving of the adjective physiological”. It was explained that Ringer-Lactate, a solution composed mainly of Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride and Calcium Lactate Pentahydrate, closely mimics the body’s own extracellular fluid that bathes the cells. Ringer-Lactate solution has no negative effect on Ciliary Beat Frequency (CBF), which is one of the most important parameters of mucociliary clearance.

As emphasized in various clinical reviews, the treatment of CRS underscores not only the aim of reducing the underlying mucosal inflammation by corticosteroids, but also the overarching goal of restoring normal sinus physiology.

References:


Jang, D. W., Lachanas, V. A., Segel, J., & Kountakis, S. E. (2013). Budesonide nasal irrigations in the postoperative management of chronic rhinosinusitis. International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology.

Sweis AM, Locke TB, Douglas JE, et al. Management of chronic rhinosinusitis with steroid nasal irrigations: A viable nonsurgical alternative in the COVID-19 era.

Snidvongs, K., Pratt, E., Chin, D., Sacks, R., Earls, P., & Harvey, R. J. (2012). Corticosteroid nasal irrigations after endoscopic sinus surgery in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis. International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology.

Thanneru M, Lanke S, Kolavali S. The Effectiveness of Budesonide Nasal Irrigation After Endoscopic Sinus Surgery in Chronic Allergic Rhinosinusitis with Polyps. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg.

Cherian LM, Bassiouni A, Cooksley CM, Vreugde S, Wormald PJ, Psaltis AJ. The clinical outcomes of medical therapies in chronic rhinosinusitis is independent of microbiomic outcomes: a double-blinded, randomised placebo-controlled trial.

Ünal, M., Görür, K., & Özcan, C. (2001). Ringer-Lactate solution versus isotonic saline solution on mucociliary function after nasal septal surgery. The Journal of Laryngology & Otology, 115(10).

Clinical Researchers Investigate the Benefits of Saline Nasal Solutions as an Aid in the Management of COVID-19

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Clinical Researchers Investigate the Benefits of Saline Nasal Solutions as an Aid in the Management of COVID-19

The morbidity and mortality associated with the dreadful novel COVID- 19 has seriously affected the whole world, posing a continuing challenge for the clinical researchers to discover ways to treat and prevent the spread of the disease. In the absence of a cure for COVID-19, researchers are prompted to focus their efforts in preventing viral transmission.

In the early stages of COVID-19, it is the nasopharyngeal mucosa which carries high viral loads. This sparked enormous interest to investigate the potential role of saline nasal irrigation solutions in reducing viral load and transmission.

COVID-19 and the Potential of Nasal Saline Irrigation

In an article published in July 2020 in the JAMA Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, clinical researchers from the Oregon Health & Science University and the Washington University School of Medicine discussed the benefits and safety of nasal saline irrigations for the COVID-19 pandemic. They reviewed the current evidence regarding the association of nasal saline irrigations with viral upper respiratory disease.

The researchers looked into the effect of saline nasal rinses in viral respiratory infections associated with mucus stasis due to the inflammatory reaction induced by the virus. It was explained that saline solutions may be helpful in disrupting and removing the mucus and other invading foreign materials in the mucosal layer. As the nasal lining is hydrated by the saline solution, the inflammatory substances in mucus also gets diluted and the sweeping actions of the cilia, the hair-like structures of nasal cells which helps clears out the mucus, is improved. These effects were seen to be particularly helpful during a viral respiratory infection wherein the movement of mucus has slowed down due to the inflammatory changes such as localized swelling and thickened secretions. The researchers, citing a recent clinical trial on the common cold, shared that rinsing the nose with saline solution may help in reducing the duration of illness, the transmission among household members, and even viral shedding.

The researchers also acknowledged the concern regarding the potential contamination of the nasal rinsing devices leading to increased transmission through contact-induced infections and advised that disinfection of these devices can be done with 75% ethanol, chlorine, UV light or heat. Indeed, good hand hygiene before and after nasal rinsing as well as decontamination of surfaces like the sink remains important.

Clinical Trials on Saline Nasal Rinses are Underway

In May 2020, researchers from the Vanderbilt University Medical Center, have initiated a clinical trial to see whether nasal saline irrigation would be able to reduce the viral load of patients with COVID-19 as well as contribute to their symptom relief. Interestingly, some of studies recently suggested the possible effect of nasal saline irrigations in reducing viral shedding in patients with coronaviruses treated with saline irrigations when compared with the control group.

Another clinical trial on saline nasal rinses for patients with COVID-19 was started in the same month by another group of researchers at the University of Edinburgh. In the ongoing study named the ELVIS (Edinburgh-Lothians Viral Intervention Study) – COVID-19, the researchers are seeking to determine if nasal washing and gargling with salt water would help individuals with COVID-19 get better faster. It also supports their earlier study which found that cells lining the nose can create an antiviral effect by producing hypochlorous acid, a form of bleach, from chloride ions which are in salt (i.e. sodium chloride).

If these saline nasal irrigations have a similar effect on the novel COVID-19 as they do on other viral respiratory infections – is what the clinical investigators and the rest of the world are eager to know.

Currently, clinical trials are actively recruiting participants with results anticipated in a few months.

References:


Farrell NF, Klatt-Cromwell C, Schneider JS. Benefits and Safety of Nasal Saline Irrigations in a Pandemic—Washing COVID-19 Away. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg.

Kimura K. Impact of Nasal Saline Irrigations on Viral Load in Patients with COVID-19.

University of Edinburgh. Hypertonic Saline Nasal Irrigation and Gargling in Suspected or Confirmed COVID-19 (ELVIS COVID-19).

Get to Know Xylitol: The Sugar Substitute with Protective Benefits

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Xylitol is a sugar-like substance with a sweetness similar to that of table sugar. However, due to some differences in chemistry and the way the body metabolizes it, xylitol supplies 40% fewer calories than table sugar. This makes xylitol a suitable low-calorie sugar substitute that has been widely used since the 1930s.

Xylitol is naturally sourced from plants and trees

Xylitol derives its name from the Ancient Greek “xylon” meaning wood which points to its natural source. Current production of xylitol involves extraction from hardwoods, softwoods and even from agricultural products such as rice, corn and wheat.

Xylitol helps protect the mouth and nose from infections 

Xylitol is now being commonly added to a variety of dental applications such as chewing gums and toothpaste due to its protective actions against cavity-causing bacteria. A similar benefit is also seen when xylitol is used to irrigate the nasal passages, where it can play multiple roles in protecting against infections. Xylitol solutions can dilute the salts that have been negatively affecting the innate or natural antimicrobial substances of the nose. Xylitol also disrupts bacterial growth and metabolism, and prevents the formation of biofilms that bacteria use to shield against antibiotics.

Xylitol nasal rinses have been found helpful in treating patients with long-standing nasal and sinus infections 

Chronic rhinosinusitis is a long-standing inflammatory condition affecting the nose and sinuses. The condition is managed with antibiotics, steroids and nasal irrigations. Some studies show that the addition of xylitol with the irrigating solution may improve treatment outcomes. In two separate clinical trials published in 2011 and 2018, it was shown that nasal irrigations with xylitol have led to better resolution of symptoms compared with irrigations with plain salt water solutions.

References:

Lin L, Tang X, Wei J, Dai F, Sun G. Xylitol nasal irrigation in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. Am J Otolaryngol.

Weissman JD, Fernandez F, Hwang PH. Xylitol nasal irrigation in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis: a pilot study. 

Woman holding her neck grimace pain.

Helpful Tips for Sore Throat

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Does your throat feel achy, painful, burning, or irritated? You might be experiencing a sore throat.

Sore throat could be a bothering ailment that would call for remedies for relief and to prevent worsening of the condition. Here are some easy to follow and practical means to deal with that bothersome “sore in your throat”:

1. STRENGTHEN YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM DEFENSE. Have a healthy diet, enough rest and adequate sleep. 

2. PRACTICE GOOD HYGIENE to avoid infection. Regularly perform proper hand and oral hygiene to eliminate germs that may cause sore throat.

3. REST YOUR VOICE adequately.

4. Drink plenty of fluids to STAY HYDRATED and to keep your throat moist.

5. AVOID DRINKS such as coffee and alcohol that may dehydrate your body.

6. STAY AWAY FROM CIGARETTE SMOKE AND CHEMICALS that can irritate the throat.

7. Take warm liquids and use naturally sourced PRODUCTS WITH SOOTHING PROPERTIES, LIKE HONEY AND PROPOLIS.

8. GARGLE WITH WARM SALTWATER solution that can help soothe your throat.

9. AVOID CLOSED, CONGESTED OR HUMID environments.


It is always best to consult your doctor if you feel persisting, worsening or recurring symptoms of throat irritations such as hoarse voice,, itchy, dry, scratchy or painful throat, difficulty in swallowing and fever.

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FAQs on PROPOLIS

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What is Propolis?

Propolis is a natural substance produced by honeybees from plants which is recognized for its numerous health benefits.  

Propolis is made by honeybees from a complex mixture of resins, waxes and oils gathered from various plants and trees. Propolis is also known as “bee glue” which the honeybees use to seal the entrances and cracks of their beehives as well as to sanitize and protect them against infection.    

This protective function of propolis is also reflected in the origin of the term which was derived from the Greek words “pro” which is translated to “at the entrance to” and “polis” for “community or city.”

What are the benefits of Propolis?

As a compound, propolis contains numerous bioactive plant substances called flavonoids that make propolis multifunctional in promoting oral health and in protecting the oral cavity against disease causing microorganisms.

Owing to its known multiple actions, propolis has been studied and prepared either as an ointment, spray or gargle to soothe inflamed throats, reduce mouth sores and promote healing of oral cavity irritations such as stomatitis, aphthous ulcers and mucositis. A gargle preparation of propolis was even found to be beneficial in the healing of postsurgical wounds as seen in tonsillectomies or the surgical removal of the tonsils.

1. Healing and Soothing Properties

Propolis is also known for its antioxidant properties. The bioactive flavonoids present in propolis have been shown to act as potent antioxidants capable of counteracting or neutralizing the damaging free radicals. In this regard, antioxidants could be seen to help protect the different body cells from further injury. The antioxidative properties of flavonoids in propolis also contribute to its anti-inflammatory actions.

Aside from aiding in the healing of oral sores and wounds, applying preparations of propolis on irritated tissues has been shown to help reduce pain. This has been attributed to the inhibitory activities of propolis against the release of precursor inflammatory compounds from injured tissues.

 2. Antimicrobial Actions

Antimicrobial activities against certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi have also been documented in studies with the compound propolis. In a laboratory setting, multiplication of both cultured gram positive and gram-negative bacteria was inhibited while the entry of viruses into the cells was reduced with the use of various preparations of propolis and its extracts. 

What are the adverse effects of propolis?

Although rare, adverse effects have been reported with the use of the compound propolis in general like hypersensitivity reactions among individuals allergic to bee products.

What are the precautions that should be observed when taking propolis?

• Persons allergic to bee products such as honey, bee pollen and royal jelly should not use propolis.
• Care should be taken when used by individuals with a history of hypersensitivity conditions such as allergies and asthma.
•Pregnancy and breastfeeding: There are no information available about use of propolis during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.


References:


Wagh VD. Propolis: a wonder bees product and its pharmacological potentials. Adv Pharmacol Sci.

Przybyłek I, Karpiński TM. Antibacterial Properties of Propolis. Molecules.

Debiaggi M, Taleo F, Pagani L, Luini M, Romero E. Effects of propolis flavonoids on virus infectivity and replication. Microbiologica.

Moon JH, Lee MY, Chung YJ, Rhee CK, Lee SJ. Effect of Topical Propolis on Wound Healing Process After Tonsillectomy: Randomized Controlled Study. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol.

Braakhuis A. Evidence on the Health Benefits of Supplemental Propolis. Nutrients.

US CDC and WHO Advise Public on the Prevention and Control of Dengue

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International health authorities are reminding the public on the preventive and control measures that should be taken to prevent the spread of dengue infection most especially amidst the current COVID-19 pandemic.

In the most recent bulletin from the WHO for the Western Pacific Region dated 16 July 2020, there are already 52,601 recorded cases of dengue in the Philippines for the year. Following are the pertinent health facts gathered from the Department of Health (DOH), United States Center for Disease Control (US CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) to serve as guide in dealing with this disease.

Basic Steps to Prevent Dengue

• The best way to prevent dengue is to protect oneself from mosquito bites.
• To avoid infecting other people, patients with dengue should avoid getting further mosquito bites during the first week of illness as the virus may be circulating in the blood during this time.

Control of Transmission

Important measures to control or prevent the transmission of dengue virus by combatting the mosquito vectors through:

• Stopping mosquitoes from laying eggs in or near water source by eliminating mosquito breeding sites and preventing mosquitoes from accessing egg-laying habitats through various environmental cleanliness measures
• Proper disposal of solid waste and removing habitats that can hold water
• Covering, emptying and cleaning of domestic water storage containers such as tires, buckets, planters, toys, pools, birdbaths, flowerpots, or trash containers.
•Use appropriate insecticides to water storage outdoor containers and stagnant water sites.


Protecting Oneself from Infection

• Primary mosquito vectors bite throughout the day; use personal household protection measures, such as window screens, repellents, insecticide treated materials, coils and vaporizers both inside and outside of the home (e.g. at work or school)
• Wear long or large clothes such as long-sleeved shirts or long pants to minimize skin exposure to mosquitoes. Dress children in clothing that covers arms and legs
• Use protective covers at home when sleeping such as mosquito nets. The strollers and baby carriers must be covered with mosquito netting as well.
• When using insect repellent on children, always follow label instructions. Do not use products containing oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE) or para-methane-diol (PMD) on children under 3 years old.


Community Engagement

• Participate in health education and awareness campaigns in the community to mitigate the risks of mosquito-borne diseases
• Engage with the rest of the community to improve participation and mobilization for sustained vector control
• Health authorities may also employ emergency vector control measures such as applying insecticides as space spraying during outbreaks

Controlling the spread of dengue in the community is a multi-system approach. It isn’t limited to just protecting oneself from the bite of a mosquito, rather it takes a concerted effort from different stakeholders to maintain the environment free from dengue-carrying mosquitoes. Most importantly, this approach is enhanced by the prompt recognition of symptoms and the immediate action to seek medical attention.


References:


Dengue prevention, What we know. (CDC) 

Key facts about Dengue, (WHO, International) 

Vaccine vs. COVID-19: Where Are We Now?

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As the world continues to struggle with the overwhelming impact of the current COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine researchers around the globe are diligently working on developing the means to definitively control the further spread of the deadly virus, SARS-CoV-2.

There are generally three phases of vaccine testing on humans prior to being licensed for use. As the U.S. Food and Drug Administration explains, Phase 1 or initial human studies are done to determine safety and ability of the vaccine to induce an immune response and is performed in a small number of closely monitored subjects.  Phase 2 studies are done with different dosages of the vaccine and may have to enroll hundreds of subjects.  Finally, Phase 3 trials typically enroll thousands of individuals to critically document the effectiveness and important additional safety data required for licensing.

In the draft landscape of COVID-19 line-up of vaccines released by the WHO on 20 July 2020, 24 candidate vaccines are already at various phases of testing in humans.

Since there is no specific treatment yet for a novel disease like COVID-19, the news about development of vaccines for this dreadful disease that has inflicted millions provides a ray of hope amidst the gloomy pandemic.  The world now is in watchful anticipation of genuine outcomes.

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